早期人类食肉的证据

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作者:Briana Pobiner(史密森尼人类起源计划)© 2013 Nature Education

引用:Pobiner,B.(2013)早期人类食肉的证据。Nature Education Knowledge 4(6):1

人类饮食的第一个重大演变是在至少260万年前开始摄入大型动物的肉和骨髓。

食肉和骨髓

最早的人族 (hominins)的饮食可能与现代黑猩猩的饮食有些相似:杂食性,包括大量的水果、叶子、花朵、树皮、昆虫和肉(例如,Andrews&Martin 1991;Milton 1999;Watts 2008)。牙齿形态学和牙齿微磨耗研究表明,一些人族 (hominins)的饮食可能包括种子和坚果等硬食物,以及地下储藏器官(USOs)例如根和块茎(Jolly 1970;Peters&O’Brien 1981;Teaford&Ungar 2000;Luca等人 2010)。至少在260万年前,这种饮食开始发生显著的扩展;一些人族 (hominins)开始将从小到非常大的动物身上获取的肉和骨髓融入到他们的饮食中。让我们探索这种戏剧性转变的证据,使用5个“W”问题:何时,何地,谁,什么,为什么(以及如何)。

人族 (hominins)食肉何时和何地开始?

肉食和骨髓食用的最强有力的证据是在骨骼上发现的屠宰痕迹。用锋利的工具从骨头上切下肉可以留下切割痕迹(图1)。用大石头敲打骨头以打开并提取内部骨髓可以留下冲击痕迹。切割和冲击痕迹,称为屠宰痕迹,可能是由于为了膳食和非膳食目的进行剥皮、解体和骨折而产生的(Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006)。科学家们在20世纪80年代开始在早期石器时代的化石组合中认识到这些屠宰痕迹(例如,Bunn 1981;Potts&Shipman 1981;Blumenschine&Selvaggio 1988)。关于人类咀嚼骨头的实验和史前证据直到最近才开始被探索(例如,Landt 2007;Delaney-Rivera等人 2009;Fernandez-Jalvo和Andrews 2011;Pickering等人 2013)。

Figure 1

(a) 来自肯尼亚库比福拉地区的一根150万年前的化石羚羊下肢骨(跗骨),上面有切割痕迹;
(b) 这些切割痕迹的近景。

© 2013 Nature Education Courtesy of Briana Pobiner. All rights reserved.

只有那些带有屠宰痕迹的化石化骨头可以自信地与人族 (hominins)的饮食联系起来(Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006)。这种新型饮食行为的最早被广泛接受的证据来自埃塞俄比亚Gona地区约260万年前的遗址(Domínguez-Rodrigo等人 2005)。可能并非巧合的是,大约在这个时候,我们开始看到首次出现考古可见的石器积聚物的证据(Semaw等人 2003)。在埃塞俄比亚的Dikika地区,可能有关于340万年前的人族 (hominins)屠宰的骨头的证据(McPherron等人 2010),那里发现了南方古猿的化石,但这些证据仅仅是一些骨

头标本,并且受到了争议(Domínguez-Rodrigo等人 2010)。有关人族 (hominins)食肉的持续证据最早见于约200万年前在肯尼亚Kanjera遗址的现场出土的化石动物群中(Ferraro等人 2013)。除了陆地动物外,来自Koobi Fora的一个遗址的证据表明,约195万年前,人族 (hominins)开始将像乌龟、鳄鱼和鱼这样的水生食物纳入其饮食中(Braun等人 2010)。坦桑尼亚Olduvai Gorge的多个地点,可追溯到180万年前,也显示了一些有关在场屠宰的哺乳动物遗骸,其大小从刺猬到大象不等;这些遗骸也与大量的石器工具相关联(Domínguez-Rodrigo等人 2007;Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006及其引用)。肯尼亚的Koobi Fora遗址的三个地点保存了大约150万年前的几个屠宰哺乳动物的证据,但没有发现与任何石器工具相关联(Pobiner等人 2008)。也许这标志着活动的有意专门化,例如动物屠宰和石器制造,在不同地区的不同地方开始(Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006)。

只有那些带有屠宰痕迹的化石化骨头可以自信地与人族 (hominins)的饮食联系起来(Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006)。最早被广泛接受的有关这种新型饮食行为的证据来自埃塞俄比亚Gona地区大约在260万年前(Domínguez-Rodrigo等人 2005)。也许并非巧合的是,大约在这个时候,我们开始看到考古学上可见的首批石器积聚物的证据(Semaw等人 2003)。在埃塞俄比亚Dikika地区可能有关于340万年前的人族 (hominins)屠宰的骨头的证据(McPherron等人 2010),那里发现了南方古猿的化石,但这些证据仅仅是一些骨头标本,并且受到了争议(Domínguez-Rodrigo等人 2010)。从原位挖掘出的化石动物群中获得的最早被充分记录的人族 (hominins)食肉的证据是在肯尼亚Kanjera地区大约在200万年前(Ferraro等人 2013)。除了陆地动物外,在Koobi Fora的一个地点的证据显示,约在195万年前,人族 (hominins)开始将海龟、鳄鱼和鱼等水生食物纳入其饮食中(Braun等人 2010)。坦桑尼亚Olduvai Gorge的多个地点,可追溯到180万年前,也显示了一些关于现场屠宰的哺乳动物遗骸的证据,这些遗骸的大小从刺猬到大象不等;这些遗骸也与大量的石器工具相关联(Domínguez-Rodrigo等人 2007;Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006及其中引用的文献)。肯尼亚的Koobi Fora地区的三个地点保留了大约在150万年前的几个屠宰哺乳动物的证据,但未发现与任何石器工具相关联的证据(Pobiner等人 2008)。也许这标志着不同地区在地貌上活动的有意专门化,例如动物屠宰和石器制造。

谁在吃这些肉和骨髓?

目前,有化石证据表明至少有三种人族 (hominins)物种出现在约260-250万年前:南方古猿、加尔古人和埃塞俄比亚人猿;H. habilis大约在240-230万年前确立(图2)。在与A. africanus或P. aethiopicus相关的地层中没有发现屠宰的骨头(或石器工具),因此这些分类单元可能不太可能是我们的肇事者。虽然在A. garhi化石附近发现了被屠宰的骨头(de Heinzelin等人 1999),但仅在人属中,尤其是在直立人中,我们看到与食肉经常相关的生物特征,例如牙齿和肠道大小的减小以及体型和脑型的增大(例如,McHenry 1992;Aiello和Wheeler 1995;Antón 2003;Braun等人 2010)。

这种饮食策略的独特之处在于什么地方呢?

人族 (hominins)的食肉行为在三个方面与灵长类动物不同:(1)使用剥制石器工具获取动物资源;(2)从比人族 (hominins)自身更大的动物中获取资源(图3);以及(3)通过食腐来获取动物资源。我们最接近的现存亲属黑猩猩通常会狩猎,用手捕捉并食用叶猴或其他较小猴类的肉(例如Mitani和Watts 2001),但肉在它们的饮食中只占很小的比例,它们很少食腐(Watts 2008),最有可能是因为它们不能有效地消化腐肉(Ragir等人 2000)。人族 (hominins)如何首次认识到这种新型食物来源仍然未知。人族 (hominins)可能不会直接利用草地扩张到整个非洲的草原栖息地 – (尽管参见Sponheimer等人 2013),但是对于任何能够获得和消化大型(放牧)动物资源的物种来说,这种大动物资源的增加都将是有用的(Plummer 2004)。这种转变标志着灵长类动物向更大的食肉动物群体渗透,这将向人族 (hominins)带来全新的选择性压力(Brantingham 1999;Pobiner&Blumenschine 2003;Werdelin&Lewis 2005)。

图2:KNM-ER 1813的照片,这是肯尼亚库比福拉地区的一颗1.9百万年前的人类智人头骨。

这是该物种最完整的头骨之一。

© 2013 Nature Education Courtesy of Chip Clark/Smithsonian Institution. All rights reserved.

为什么人族 (hominins)开始食用更多的肉和骨髓呢?

关于过去的“为什么”问题通常很难回答,但我们可以考虑一些肉和骨髓提供的好处。肉和骨髓是热量密集的资源,含有必需的氨基酸和微量营养素(Milton 1999),水生动物提供了大脑生长所需的丰富营养资源(例如Broadhurst等人 2002)。增加动物食物的消耗量可能使人族 (hominins)能够增加其体型而不失去机动性、敏捷性或社交性(Milton 1999)。但人族 (hominins)从动物组织中获得的营养物质的频率和数量与其他食物相比如何?在Olduvai Gorge的FLK 22和FLKN 1-2地点,人族 (hominins)通过直接比例破坏小到中大型哺乳动物的长骨,以获取骨髓脂肪的总热量收益(Blumenschine&Madrigal 1993 – 但请参见Bunn等人 2010年对FLKN 1-2地点人族 (hominins)行为的不同解释)。FLK 22处中等大型哺乳动物的长骨丰度还与骨髓骨的净收益显着正相关(Blumenschine&Madrigal 2000)。最优觅食理论规定,期望在遇到时从最佳饮食套餐中消费食物;尸体遇到率取决于各种生态变量(Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006)。这表明,至少在180万年前,处理尸体的决策可能已经考虑了各种食物的能量收益。假设在机会性遇到尸体时,这些净收益与热带猎人采集的大多数非哺乳动物食物相比相当,甚至更高(Blumenschine&Pobiner 2006以及其中的参考文献)。

图 3 :近100万年前,肯尼亚的Olorgesailie地区由直立人进行的大象屠宰的重建。

© 2013 Nature Education Courtesy of Karen Carr/Smithsonian Institution. All rights reserved.

早期人类是如何获得和利用这些肉和骨髓的?

关于利用缠绕矛尖这种狩猎技术的最早证据目前可以追溯到大约50万年前(Wilkins等人 2012);复杂的投射性武器仅出现在71,000年前(Brown等人2012年)。据认为,持久追逐狩猎是一种可以在没有先进技术的情况下进行的狩猎方式,但尚不清楚我们如何在化石或考古记录中识别这种行为。关于控制使用火的最早证据,以燃烧的种子、木材和燧石形式出现在壁炉中,可能与烹饪有关,追溯到大约79万年前(Goren-Inbar等人 2004)。与人族 (hominins)相关的早期火痕的更早迹象(例如在Koobi Fora、Chesowanja和Swartkrans的地方)与追溯到东非和南非的人族 (hominins)有关,主要由沉积物变色组成,尚未得到广泛接受(James 1989;Goren-Inbar等人2004年)。虽然现代人类的肠道比例和大小在大猩猩中是独特的(Milton 1999),研究发现现代人类基因中的选择特征可能在适应饮食变化方面发挥了作用(Babbitt等人 2011),但目前尚不清楚促进肉类和骨髓食用的解剖和生理变化究竟是何时发生的。

许多研究早期石器时代动物遗存的动物考古学家认为,至少有些被人族 (hominins)屠宰的动物尸体,尤其是较大的尸体,是通过食腐获得的。在早期石器时代化石上首次发现屠宰痕迹后不久,有关“狩猎或食腐辩论”的文章开始在文献中越来越普及,特别是围绕Olduvai Gorge的FLK 22 Zinjanthropus遗址的解释(例如Binford 1981;Bunn 1981;Bunn 1986;Shipman 1986;Blumenschine 1988,1995;Binford 1988;Bunn和Kroll 1986, 1988; Bunn和Ezzo 1993; Capaldo 1997; Domínguez-Rodrigo 1997; Dominguez-Rodrigo等人 2007)。与此同时,对从食腐尸体中获得的资源可用性进行了一系列实证研究(Blumenschine 1986, 1987;Cavallo和Blumenschine 1989;Selvaggio 1994;Capaldo 1995,Domínguez-Rodrigo 1999;Pobiner 2007),尽管有些人仍然认为肉是边缘食物资源(例如,Speth 1989)。本文不可能探讨这场辩论的历史(但请参见Bunn 1991;Domínguez-Rodrigo 2002;Domínguez-Rodrigo&Pickering 2003;以及Plummer 2004进行评述);不太可能这些尸体获取方式 – 狩猎和食腐(无论是被动的食腐还是主动/对抗性的食腐) – 是互相排斥的行为,而是根据各种行为和生态变量进行的(例如,可用于尸体获取、屠宰和运输的群体中可用的人族 (hominins)数量;猎物大小、年龄和物种;栖息地、其他可用的食物资源和其他掠食者的存在)。切割、冲击和牙齿痕迹(例如,Blumenschine 1988)的频率和位置的实验模型通常用于告知我们关于早期获取(早期获取与晚期获取)和贡献者的动物考古组合(例如,Blumenschine 1995;Egeland等人 2004)的时间。

这一研究领域中一些尚未解决的问题包括:

  1. 动物资源对人族 (hominins)的重要性(相对于植物和其他非动物资源),以及这种重要性如何因人族 (hominins)物种、时间段、栖息地或其他变量而变化?
  2. 在现代生态系统中,随着猎物的大小(例如,Blumenschine 1987;Pobiner 2007)、猎物的物种、捕食者的物种、捕食者的群体大小以及季节和栖息地等生态变量,可供食腐的肉和骨髓的数量如何变化?这些变量中是否有任何影响频率和屠宰痕迹的位置,如果有,影响是如何的(例如,Pobiner和Braun 2005)?
  3. 我们如何评估在任何一个地点是否发生了对抗性食腐或被动食腐?如果多种尸体获取方式同时发生会怎样?在不同地点,尸体获取的方式如何随着不同的生态条件而变化?尸体获取方式如何与人族 (hominins)获取动物资源的时间相关联(早期获取或晚期获取)?

Glossary

hominin: Refers to the human evolutionary group of species, including fossil and modern. This word comes from Hominini, a formal biological term in between the level of genus (e.g., Homo, Australopithecus) and the level of family (Hominidae)

carnivory: Obtaining foods from animals.

in situ: (Latin) meaning ‘in the place.’ In prehistoric studies, in situ refers to an artifact or fossil that occurs in the location where it was deposited. In situ materials are securely situated in a sediment layer, which allows archaeologists to date them and/or give them better context by studying other artifacts, fossils, or sediments that have been are found nearby in the same layer.

fauna: Animals, or pertaining to animals (such as faunal remains).

persistence hunting: A hunting technique in which the hunters use running, walking, and tracking to pursue their prey to the point of prey exhaustion.

Early Stone Age: A time period lasting from about 2.6 million to between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago that includes stone tools traditions called Oldowan and Acheulean. The Early Stone Age in Africa is roughly equivalent to what is called the Lower Paleolithic in Europe and Asia.

actualistic: A method of inferring the nature of past events by analogy with processes observable and in action in the present.

passive scavenging: Scavenging from an animal carcass that was killed by another predator, or that died of natural causes. Can yield a variety of amounts of different carcass resources (e.g. meat, marrow, brains) depending on whether another predator(s) had access to that carcass first and the sizes and species of the predator(s) and prey carcass.

active or confrontational scavenging: Scavenging from a carcass that involves confronting or chasing a predator in order to obtain resources from that carcass. Can yield a variety of amounts of different carcass resources (meat, marrow, brains) depending on whether another predator(s) had access to that carcass first and the sizes and species of other predator(s) and prey carcass. Often (incorrectly) assumed to yield more resources than passive scavenging.

early access: Obtaining resources from a carcass early in the carcass consumption sequence (usually first), whether by hunting or scavenging.

late access: Obtaining resources from a carcass later in the carcass consumption sequence (not first). Late access predators can obtain a variety of amounts of different carcass resources (meat, marrow, brains) depending on the size and species of other predator(s) had access to that carcass first and size of the prey carcass.

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